objective 17: summarize the components of instrumental conditioning.
Operant conditioning, like classical conditioning, is a form of associative learning, but operant conditioning is much more complex. Classical conditioning is simply teaching someone or something to respond to a stimulus, but operant conditioning is teaching that subject something they can't already do by using rewards and punishments. By definition, operant conditioning is where behavior is strengthened with reinforcement or diminished with punishment.
B.F. Skinner, a behaviorist, expanded upon Edward L. Thorndike's law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Using this first like as a base, Skinner then revealed the principles of behavior control. These principles were developed in a new behavioral technology: an operant box, or more famously known as the Skinner Box. The Skinner Box example to the right poses as an excellent example of how some of the simplest operant conditioning works. Inside the box is a rat, a lever, and a food dispenser. If the rat was to push the level, food would be given as a reward. The rat would then associate pushing the lever with receiving food, and it would do it again and again until it was full.
B.F. Skinner, a behaviorist, expanded upon Edward L. Thorndike's law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Using this first like as a base, Skinner then revealed the principles of behavior control. These principles were developed in a new behavioral technology: an operant box, or more famously known as the Skinner Box. The Skinner Box example to the right poses as an excellent example of how some of the simplest operant conditioning works. Inside the box is a rat, a lever, and a food dispenser. If the rat was to push the level, food would be given as a reward. The rat would then associate pushing the lever with receiving food, and it would do it again and again until it was full.
The above video is a clip of "The Big Bang Theory" on TBS. In the video, we see Sheldon Cooper training his unknowing friend Penny with operant conditioning. While Sheldon and Leonard are watching TV, Penny rudely keeps interrupting throughout the show. When Sheldon mentions that she's talking too much, Penny apologizes and says she'll stop talking. Upon this, Sheldon offers her a piece of chocolate. As their show continues on, Penny's phone rings and she proceeds to answer it. Sheldon gives her a stern look and she apologizes, saying she'll take her conversation to the hall, and Sheldon offers her another piece of chocolate as she leaves. Maybe I'll have to try this on my brother!
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZNBpKRQgYY
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZNBpKRQgYY
objective 18: identify and describe positive and negative reinforcement, positive and negative punishment, the different schedules of reinforcement, discriminative stimuli, and shaping.
Positive and negative reinforcement are both major parts of operant conditioning. In positive reinforcement, behaviors are increased when a positive reinforcer is presented because the positive reinforcer strengthens the response. In negative reinforcement, a behavior is increased when a negative stimuli is stopped or reduced because after the negative reinforcer is removed, the response is strengthened (though this is not a punishment). Both positive and negative reinforcement follow a reinforcement schedule: a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be enforced. There are three main type of reinforcement schedules:
Like reinforcement, patients also experience positive and negative punishment. In positive punishment, a negative consequence is presented after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. An example of positive punishment would be if a small child takes a toy from another child and is then sent to time out, or if a child is caught picking his nose in class and the teacher chooses to reprimand him in front of his classmates. Negative punishment happens when a certain desired stimulus is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less often in the future. A negative punishment example would be one such as when siblings are fighting over a toy and their parent takes the toy away.
In operant conditioning, reinforcers also make patients undergo shaping. During shaping, reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior. Discriminative stimuli also arise during operant conditioning. Discrimative stimuli are those that exert control over a particular form of behavior, like when the patient discriminates between closely related stimuli and responds positively only in the presence of that stimulus. An example of this comes with dog training. Usually, when training a dog, you reward them with treats. It is important to not always reward them with a treat and maybe a belly rub or something instead, otherwise they will only perform the desired tricks when they know a treat is available.
http://bcotb.com/the-difference-between-positivenegative-reinforcement-and-positivenegative-punishment/
- Partial: reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response by much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
- Fixed interval: reinforces a response only after a specialized time has elapsed
- Variable interval: reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Like reinforcement, patients also experience positive and negative punishment. In positive punishment, a negative consequence is presented after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. An example of positive punishment would be if a small child takes a toy from another child and is then sent to time out, or if a child is caught picking his nose in class and the teacher chooses to reprimand him in front of his classmates. Negative punishment happens when a certain desired stimulus is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less often in the future. A negative punishment example would be one such as when siblings are fighting over a toy and their parent takes the toy away.
In operant conditioning, reinforcers also make patients undergo shaping. During shaping, reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior. Discriminative stimuli also arise during operant conditioning. Discrimative stimuli are those that exert control over a particular form of behavior, like when the patient discriminates between closely related stimuli and responds positively only in the presence of that stimulus. An example of this comes with dog training. Usually, when training a dog, you reward them with treats. It is important to not always reward them with a treat and maybe a belly rub or something instead, otherwise they will only perform the desired tricks when they know a treat is available.
http://bcotb.com/the-difference-between-positivenegative-reinforcement-and-positivenegative-punishment/
objective 19: describe the application of the principles of instrumental conditioning to the therapeutic situation (behavior modification). compare and contrast classical and instrumental conditioning.
Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, is a way to modify and reinforce behavior through rewards and or punishments. If you want your child to change the way they behave, you can either praise and reward them for acting appropriately or you can chastise and punish them for poor behavior. Though good in theory, many people critisize instrumental conditioning in fear that patients may become to reliant on rewards or being controlled by a therapist. On Psychology Campus's website, the application of instrumental conditioning is further explained. According to Psychology Campus, instrumental conditioning is most often applied to children in behavior modification. When a child behaves themselves well, they are rewarded with a token that can later be traded in for a larger prize. Another type of conditioning is behavioral contracting, more commonly used on adults. In behavioral contracting, the therapist will give the patient a contract of responsibilities and behavioral expectations, and if the client follows the contract, the therapist will reward them.
Instrumental conditioning and classical conditioning are similar and different in several ways. The first, most obvious similarity is that they are the two main theories of learning. They both also strive to achieve a desired behavior through changes in stimuli in therapeutic settings. They both tend to work better if there is a smaller amount of time between the stimuli and the response. However, classical conditioning makes an association between an involuntary response and a preceding stimulus, while instrumental conditioning makes an association between a voluntary behavior and a proceeding consequence and rewarded behavior is more likely to recur. While classical conditioning has more to do with unlearned responses, instrumental conditioning is more related to conscious behavior and choices.
http://www.psychologycampus.com/behavioral-psychology/operant-conditioning.html
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
http://www.psychologycampus.com/behavioral-psychology/operant-conditioning.html
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
objective 20: describe what skinner means by determinism.
Determinism, by definition, is the philosophy or way of thinking that states that all human action is caused or determined by preceding events, and not by the exercise of free will. Determinists believe that every effect has a cause and every cause has an effect. What Skinner means by determinism is that if our actions weren't governed by the law of cause and effect, it would be impossible to predict behavior. that being said, we know that people who know us best are still able to somewhat accurately predict our behavior and responses in many situations.
The picture above is not only a good example of what "free will" is, but how determinism has an effect on it. Though the cow featured is obviously not human, the decision of which side of the hall it walks down is determined by preceding events: it has probably seen other cows walk down either side and never found out the ultimate consequence. According to determinism, the cause of winding up in the slaughter house could be the effect of walking down either side of the hall. The image to the right is pretty inspiring about life. Basically, it says that we can decide the life we begin with, but we can choose where we go in it.
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
objective 21: summarize freud's conception of the unconscious.
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objective 22: describe the structure of personality as freud views it (id, ego, superego), his concept of defense, and his theory of development.
As pictured in the previous objective, there are three main parts to Freud's view of the structure of our personality: the Id, Ego, and Superego, and they each play an important part in our personalities. The Id is the part of our personality that contains unconscious psychic energy and operates on the pleasure principle to satisfy sexual and aggressive drives and desires. The Ego is the mostly conscious part of our personalities. Its job is to work as a "go between" for the id, superego, and reality. Our egos focus on reality to maximize pleasure and minimize pain while keeping our thoughts, judgement, and perceptions in check. Lastly we have our Superego, or our conscious. The Superego is the part of our personality that represents internalized ideals and standards for judgement and future aspirations. Our Superego also tries to influence our egos into behaving idealistically and morally. Below is a clip from the Disney film, "The Emperor's New Groove." In this part of the movie, the character "Krunk" undergoes a dilemma where he is confronted by his Id (the little devil) and his Superego (the angel) about what to do about his problem.
Another popular idea of Freud's was his concept of defense. These defense mechanisms are made by the ego to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. According to Freud, repression, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories, underlied all the other defense mechanisms. The other six defense mechanisms include regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, and denial. to the right is a funny example of how some of these defense mechanisms work!
One of the other more recognized ideas of Freud was his theory of development, where children go through five psychosexual stages. The stages are as follows:
One of the other more recognized ideas of Freud was his theory of development, where children go through five psychosexual stages. The stages are as follows:
- Oral (0 to 18 months): Pleasure centers on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing
- Anal (18 to 36 months): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control.
- Phallic (3 to 6 years): Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with sexual incestuous feelings
- Latency (6 to puberty): A phase of dormant sexual feelings
- Genital (Puberty on): Maturation of sexual interests
objective 23: define rogers' actualizing tendency.
Rogers' actualizing tendency is a theory in which for people to be able to grow and live to their fullest, a environment with three specific conditions is required: genuineness, acceptance, and empathy. If these three requirements are met, an individual is able to have a fuller concept of themselves. Below is an interview with Carl Rogers on the actualizing tendency, describing what the three specific conditions do for an individual.
Rogers' actualizing tendency is very closely related to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. In the hierarchy of needs, an individual can move up the levels of needs once the preceeding needs have been met - as long as the three initial conditions are met. Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0neRQzudzw&list=PL4Q9nVV6PZCxIqVfzsb9mJnsMcpU0DKWL
objective 24: describe the development of congruence and incongruence.
In development, being congruent is regarded as a good trait, while being incongruent is seen as a bad trait. Incongruence occurs when a person's self-image (the way they see themselves) is different and separate from their ideal-self (the way they wish they were). Incongruence can lead to low self-worth and depression. Congruence, on the other hand, occurs when a person's self-image and ideal-self overlap very well. With age and maturity through adolescence, people become more congruent because they have a better idea of what they can and cannot accomplish for themselves and others. Throughout childhood, our ideal-selves frequently change. Unfortunately, it is impossible for someone to be 100% congruent because there are always skills that an individual wishes they could do or things they could have to make themselves better. To the left is a more visual example of what congruence and incongruence look like. Below is a video on how congruence and incongruence can be seen by others in our body language versus what we are saying to that person.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oh007B_qhmw
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oh007B_qhmw
Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules
objective 25: describe the therapeutic concepts of therapeutic neutrality, free association, interpretation, and transference.
Therapeutic neutrality, free association, interpretation, and transference are all important therapeutic concepts in psychology. Therapeutic neutrality is when a therapist acts only as a reflecting board for a patient. The therapist in this situation doesn't judge you or the things you do and they practice active listening and unconditional positive regard. In free association, the patient relaxes by laying down and their unconscious is explored. Without any filter, the patient is able to relay any thoughts that come to their mind - naturally editing what you say provides clues in the types of relationships you have with people. Interpretation is the process of dreams, resistance, and transference being analyzed. Lastly, in transference, insight into relationships is gained. In this process, the patient transfers the emotions linked with another relationship to their therapist. Below is a video to an example of how interpretation works in psychoanalysis.
In the following website, http://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/psychpedia/free-association-in-therapy , free association is explained more deeply and gives examples as to why it's a good type of therapy.